Journal of Libya for geographical studies
مجلة ليبيا للدراسات الجغرافية مجلة علمية محكمة ومصنفة، تأسست بناء على قرار السيد/ رئيس فرع المنطقة الوسطى بالجمعية الجغرافية الليبية رقم (1) لسنة 2021م. تصدر المجلة نصف سنوية بواقع عددين في السنة (في شهري يناير ويوليو من كل سنة)، وتحمل رقم الإيداع القانوني (557/2021) بدار الكتب الوطنية ببنغازي، وهي معتمدة لدى إدارة المطبوعات والمصنفات الفنية بوزارة الثقافة والتنمية المعرفية بطرابلس بالقرار رقم (17 لسنة 2022م) الصادر عن مدير الادارة العامة للمطبوعات والمصنفات الفنية، بالإضافة إلى حصولها على الرقم التسلسلي المعياري الدولي Online ISSN: 2789-4843 و print ISSN: 3080-0463، وتحظى المجلة بـ معامل التأثير العربي بمعدل (1.35) سنة 2025، كما صنفت ضمن الفئة الثالثة Q3 في معامل التأثير والاستشهادات المرجعية للمجلات العربية (ارسيف) سنة 2025، كما صنيفت المجلة في الفئة الرابعة (Q4) في دليل المجلات الليبية الالكتروني سنة 2025. وهي عضو رسمي في منظمة Crossref، حيث تتضمن أبحاثها معرفات الكائن الرقمي DOI. كما أن المجلة مفهرسة ضمن Google Scholar ، و Researchgate وAcademia.edu، وقواعد بيانات معرفة بالمملكة الأردنية الهاشمية، وتُعنى مجلة ليبيا للدراسات الجغرافية بإتاحة الفرصة للباحثين في ليبيا وجميع دول العالم لنشر أبحاثهم التي تتصف بالأصالة والموضوعية في فروع الجغرافيا المختلفة والعلوم ذات العلاقة بعلم الجغرافيا (كعلوم: السكان والمناخ والجيولوجيا والزراعة والاقتصاد) باللغتين العربية والانجليزية، وفق معايير البحث العلمي الرصين، مع الالتزام الصارم بقوانين الملكية الفكرية وأخلاقيات النشر الأكاديمي. و يسمح بتحميل البحوث المنشورة بها مجاناً من على موقعها بشبكة الانترنت.
الجمعية الجغرافية الليبية فرع المنطقة الوسطى
Analysis of Climatic Drought in Syria Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), 1993–2023
This study analyzes drought periods at thirteen rainfall stations in Syria, which encompasses semi-humid and semi-arid climatic zones, using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). Relative frequencies of drought categories were calculated, and produces GIS-based drought maps of these periods. Results show that >50% of years across all stations were normal. The study period was divided into three time periods to identify the driest period and assess the severity of the drought. It was observed that the moderate drought category was the most frequent during the three periods, with the highest frequency recorded during the first period (1993-2002) at Bouqa station at 40%, and 30.77% of the area affected by drought, which means partial regional drought. The highest frequency was recorded during the second period (2003-2012) at Qamishli station at 30%, and 23.08% of the area affected by drought which indicates local drought. During the third period (2013-2023), the highest frequency of moderate drought was recorded at Salkhad station at 27.3%, and 23.08% of the area affected by drought, whereas the frequency of severe and extreme drought was low, not exceeding 10%, in all stations with both semi-humid and semi-arid climates.
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Libya for geographical studies
The Role of the Free Zone in Developing Investment Sectors in the City of Nouadhibou, Mauritania
This article aims to analyze the role of the Nouadhibou Free Zone in the development of key investment sectors in the city of Nouadhibou within the context of efforts to diversify the national economy and enhance investment attractiveness. The importance of the study stems from the growing interest in this zone as a promising economic hub at both the national and regional levels. The study adopted a descriptive-analytical approach based on field data and official documents, with a focus on three main sectors: ports, fisheries, and tourism. The results showed that the Free Zone has contributed significantly to the modernization of port infrastructure, particularly through the development of the Bay of Rest Port (Port de la Baie du Repos) and the strengthening of the role of the Autonomous Port of Nouadhibou, in addition to several promising future projects. The study also found that the Free Zone has contributed to enhancing the fisheries sector through the establishment of processing units and the improvement of cold-chain and export systems, alongside the implementation of measures aimed at regulating resource exploitation and ensuring sustainability. In the tourism sector, several development projects have been implemented, contributing to the enhancement of the city's attractiveness. The study recommends strengthening sustainable investments, developing infrastructure, and improving the business environment in order to ensure the continuity of this economic dynamism.
Urbanization in Coastal Rural Areas and Its Spatial Implications: A Case Study of the Communes of Azla and Zaouiat Sidi Kacem (Tetouan Province)
This study examines the dynamics of coastal urbanization in the municipalities of Azla and Zaouiat Sidi Kacem through the analysis of statistical data, field observations, and interviews with local residents. The results indicate that the area is experiencing recent and rapid urban growth, concentrated primarily along the 32-km coastal strip of the study area. This growth is driven by the attractiveness of the location, its proximity to National Road No. 16, and the economic and tourism opportunities it offers. In contrast, the inland areas, particularly the mountainous zones, exhibit very low population densities due to rugged terrain, inadequate infrastructure, and spatial isolation. This situation has resulted in a clear spatial imbalance, with population and economic activities becoming highly concentrated along the coast. Field data further revealed that urbanization in the area is relatively recent and has accelerated since the 1990s, with the predominance of unplanned horizontal expansion in several settlements, including Douar Sidi Abdessalam Delbahar. This reflects increasing pressure on the coastal environment and a gradual reduction of natural spaces. This situation raises challenges related to spatial planning and sustainability, highlighting the need to restore balance between the coastal and inland areas and to improve infrastructure and services within the interior region.
Territorial Diagnosis and Development Challenges in Rural Morocco: The Case of Sidi Slimane Moul Kifane Commune in the Southern Periphery of Mekneso
The location of the commune of Sidi Slimane Moul Kifane on the outskirts of the city of Meknes has placed it within the city’s suburban belt and at the center of the socio-spatial dynamics between rural and urban areas, which has influenced several of its spatial and demographic characteristics. Although the area benefits from highly favorable climatic and geographical conditions for agricultural development, it suffers from the multiplicity of land tenure systems and the diversity of landholding structures. Holdings of less than 5 hectares are the most widespread, reflecting land fragmentation and the associated low agricultural productivity. The area also exhibits notable demographic dynamics. According to the 2024 census, its population reached approximately 20,427 inhabitants, with an annual growth rate of +0.65%, indicating the attractiveness of the area. Out of 36 rural settlements (douars), 26 recorded positive population growth, particularly those located near urban centers. As a result, the population is relatively young, with approximately 52.2% being under 29 years of age. However, the proportion of the economically active population is limited to only 40%, revealing a significant employment challenge and the resulting issues of unemployment, which affects 21% of the population, and poverty, which affects 10% of residents. This territorial diagnosis leads to the conclusion that priority should be given to job creation and the valorization of local resources through the diversification of rural investment activities in order to achieve the desired territorial development.
Using the Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) to Monitor Urban Growth in Tajoura Municipality
This study aims to monitor urban growth in the city of Tajoura between 2010 and 2025 in order to examine the magnitude and spatial direction of urban expansion using modern geospatial technologies, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). The analysis was based on two satellite images acquired from Landsat 5 and Landsat 8, downloaded from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) database. Following the necessary preprocessing procedures and the extraction of the study area, the Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) was applied separately to each image due to differences in the spectral bands of the two satellite sensors. This approach enabled the differentiation between built-up areas and other land-cover categories, including vegetation cover and bare land. The study employed descriptive–analytical and historical approaches to investigate the patterns of urban development. The results indicate a significant and largely unplanned increase in urbanized areas during the study period. Built-up land expanded by approximately 15.7%, increasing from 89 km² in 2010 to 103 km² in 2025. In contrast, areas characterized by natural vegetation, cultivated land, or bare surfaces declined from 349 km² in 2010 to 335 km² in 2025. These findings highlight the ongoing urban expansion in Tajoura and its associated impacts on surrounding land-cover types.
Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI)
Application of Geospatial Artificial Intelligence in Building Footprint Extraction from Aerial Imagery Using Deep Learning
This study employs Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI) applications to analyze and detect geographic features by extracting building footprints from aerial imagery using Deep Learning techniques. The approach aims to achieve a high level of accuracy and efficiency in mapping and geographic feature extraction. The study seeks to enhance the capabilities of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software in processing large volumes of geospatial data and monitoring spatial changes that occur over specific time periods. To achieve these objectives, a deep learning-based building footprint extraction approach was applied to the Al-Nuaimah area in Irbid Governorate as a case study. Two sets of aerial images were analyzed: one acquired in 2007 and another in 2024. The study integrated Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI), GIS applications, and Remote Sensing (RS) techniques to identify and quantify changes in the built environment over the study period. The findings revealed a noticeable increase in the number of buildings between 2007 and 2024, demonstrating significant urban growth within the study area. The results also confirmed the effectiveness of GeoAI applications in analyzing and extracting geographic features from aerial imagery with a high degree of accuracy and efficiency. The study recommends the wider adoption of deep learning approaches in geographical research, given their remarkable success in automated feature extraction and mapping tasks, which remain challenging for traditional machine learning methods.
Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI)
Foreign Military Bases in Djibouti and Their Impact on National and Regional Security in the Horn of Africa: A Political Geography Study
This study aimed to identify the foreign military bases in the Republic of Djibouti, analyze the political and strategic dimensions that led the government to approve their establishment, and examine their potential implications for Djibouti’s national security and the regional security of the countries of the Horn of Africa. The study adopted the descriptive, analytical, and historical approaches and relied on written sources, reports, and relevant studies. The study concluded that international competition over Djibouti is primarily geopolitical in nature and is closely linked to its strategic location in the Horn of Africa, rather than to the officially declared justifications such as combating terrorism, countering piracy, and providing humanitarian assistance. It also found that the multiplicity and heterogeneity of foreign military bases contribute to the complexity of political and security relations within the region. Furthermore, while this strategic importance enhances Djibouti’s international standing, it simultaneously raises challenges related to sovereignty and stability. The study recommends strengthening security and economic integration among the countries of the region, reviewing and regulating agreements related to foreign military bases in a manner that safeguards national sovereignty, and investing local resources and Djibouti’s geographical location to achieve development that reduces dependence on foreign military presence.
pivotal dimensions in controlling the southern political borders, leading to the sustainability of spatial development, the formation of a future present for the southern sector of the Libyan state, and its protection from demographic change due to the high rates of illegal immigration, the spread of criminal gangs, smuggling activities, and extremist gangs that have largely controlled the border area. The problem of the study lies in several aspects related to the security breakdown of the southern political borders and the resulting economic, social, and demographic problems. The scarcity of population and the deteriorating economic situation of neighboring countries, in addition to the political and security situation of the Libyan state, have negatively affected the Libyan borders in general and the southern borders in particular, contributing to the spread of border chaos. The central question that arises in the pages of this paper is what measures can be taken to control the borders and activate the purpose of their existence, in light of what the Libyan state is suffering from in terms of security weakness and regional divisions.
Spatial Analysis of the Concentration Patterns of Irregular Migrants in Benghazi Municipality: A Study of Migration Dynamics
The study examined the spatial analysis of irregular migrant concentration patterns in Benghazi Municipality, aiming to monitor their numerical and relative distribution, identify their areas of concentration, and analyze the spatial patterns of their distribution using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools. The results showed an increase in the number of migrants from 77,884 to 82,866, representing a change of 6.3%, exceeding the national average of 3.8%. The municipality accounted for 76.3% of all migrants in eastern Libya. Nine districts recorded numbers exceeding the arithmetic mean, with Al-Salawi and Al-Berrka districts having the highest numbers, while Al-Jardina, Al-Maqzaha, and Al-Nawaqiya districts had the lowest. The study revealed that North African migrants constituted the largest group at 63.9%. Moran's analysis (I=0.1029) confirmed a positive spatial correlation and a clustered distribution pattern. This was supported by the results of the Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis, which identified statistically significant hotspots in Bu Atni, Khalid Ibn Al-Walid, Al-Qawarsha, and Al-Mukhtar. Kernel density analysis showed the highest densities in the central part of the municipality, decreasing towards the periphery. The study recommends directing humanitarian and service interventions to the identified hotspots, establishing an interactive spatial monitoring system (GIS Dashboard) in Benghazi Municipality, and conducting in-depth qualitative studies.
Demographic Changes in Hay Al-Andalus Municipality During the Period 1984–2006
Identifying population size, demographic conditions, and changes in population characteristics is of considerable importance. Population growth is the outcome of the interaction of several factors that influence population size. The sex ratio also affects marriage and fertility rates, which in turn influence population growth. The reproductive capacity of a population tends to decline when the numerical balance between males and females is disturbed and increases when the distribution between the sexes is relatively balanced. Moreover, population composition affects labor force size, migration patterns, and types of employment, making demographic analysis essential for development planning. This study aims to identify the demographic changes that occurred in Hay Al-Andalus Municipality during the period 1984–2006, to examine the relationship between population density, population concentration, and the area of the municipality, and to explore future population projections for the districts of Hay Al-Andalus Municipality. The study concluded that the relationship between the geographical distribution of area and population among the districts is not optimal. It also found that, by 2030, the Industrial District is expected to record the largest population within the municipality.
Health Status of Mothers of Reproductive Age and Its Relationship with Selected Dietary Factors and Nutritional Practices in Amran Governorate, Yemen: A Case Study
This study sought to examine the health status of mothers of reproductive age and its relationship with selected dietary factors and nutritional practices in Amran Governorate, Yemen. The study falls within the scope of descriptive-analytical research. The study sample consisted of 380 mothers selected through simple random sampling and distributed across six rural districts and four urban districts. Data were collected through direct personal interviews with the mothers. The results revealed a statistically significant relationship between dietary practices and the health status of mothers at a significance level of less than 0.005. The findings also showed that 55.3% of the respondents suffered from various health problems. In addition, the daily intake of essential nutrients among mothers was found to be low, with a relative average of 28.7%. The study recommends the provision and promotion of a balanced diet in the required types and quantities to ensure a healthy life and sustainable living conditions in the future.
Geographic Distribution Indicators and Spatial Efficiency of Basic Education Schools in Dhat Al-Rimal Municipal Branch, Misrata, Using GIS
This study aims to evaluate the current status of basic education services in the Dhat Al-Rimal Municipal Branch of Misrata Municipality using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The evaluation was conducted through an analysis of the spatial distribution of schools and the extent to which this distribution conforms to planning standards and population density patterns. The results revealed a high concentration of population within the study area, which accommodates approximately 13% of the municipality’s population while occupying no more than 0.42% of its total area. The spatial analysis also showed considerable variation in the distribution of schools among the localities. While the Marbat locality contains six schools, the Yadar locality experiences severe overcrowding, with only two schools serving 24% of the student population. In contrast, the Hattin locality lacks schools entirely. Service area maps (500–1000 m) indicated the existence of geographical gaps in the northern, eastern, and western parts of the study area, where students are required to travel distances exceeding one kilometer to access educational services. Furthermore, the analyses of the Mean Center and Standard Distance demonstrated a southward concentration of educational services despite the increasing urban expansion toward the north. The study recommends the establishment of new schools in underserved areas and emphasizes the importance of employing Geographic Information Systems in future educational planning.
The Spatial Distribution of Private Pharmacies in Ajdabiya City: A Study in the Geography of Services
This study aimed to analyze the current status of private pharmacy services in the city of Ajdabiya, identify the characteristics of their spatial distribution, and evaluate the efficiency of their distribution and spatial patterns across residential neighborhoods using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The study measured the spatial distribution of pharmacies through the application of statistical and spatial techniques, including Nearest Neighbor Analysis and Kernel Density Analysis, to assess distribution density and spatial patterns. The results revealed an imbalance in the distribution of pharmacy services among the city's neighborhoods. This finding was confirmed by the predominance of a clustered distribution pattern tending toward randomness. The analysis also showed that the majority of pharmacies are concentrated in the city center within the urban planning area, while their availability decreases toward the peripheral and newly developed neighborhoods located outside the urban plan. The study recommends extending pharmacy services to underserved neighborhoods in order to achieve equitable service distribution and emphasizes the importance of adhering to planning standards and regulations when granting permits for the establishment of new pharmacies.
Spatial Analysis of the Efficiency of Mosque Distribution in Sousa City
This study aims to analyze the efficiency of the spatial distribution of mosques in the city of Sousa and to identify the distribution pattern and the extent of its compatibility with population density and urban expansion within the city. The study adopted the descriptive, analytical, and historical approaches. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), several statistical and spatial techniques were employed, including the Mean Center, Median Center, Standard Distance, and Nearest Neighbor Analysis, among others, to identify the geographical distribution pattern of mosques. The study also analyzed the relationship between mosque distribution and population density in order to determine the efficiency of the religious service provided to the city's residents. In addition, cartographic representation techniques were utilized. The results revealed spatial variation in the distribution of mosques, with a concentration in some neighborhoods characterized by high urban density, while certain newly developed areas suffer from a relative shortage of mosques. The findings further indicated that the distribution pattern of mosques tends toward spatial dispersion and regularity. The directional distribution assumes an elliptical shape extending along a semi-longitudinal axis from east to west. The study recommends considering both international and local planning standards, as well as population density, when constructing new mosques or renovating existing ones. It also emphasizes the importance of utilizing Geographic Information Systems in the planning of religious services.
Environmental Changes and the Dynamics of Coastal Hazards in Mauritania: Nouakchott as a Case Study
This study addresses coastal hazards resulting from environmental changes in one of the coastal cities most affected by this phenomenon. Owing to its geomorphological fragility, the city of Nouakchott has become one of the most vulnerable coastal cities in Mauritania and among those most exposed to coastal hazards. This situation is further aggravated by the city's very rapid population growth and the accompanying uncontrolled horizontal urban expansion driven by rural migration and high natural population increase. The study shows that Nouakchott is experiencing a growing range of coastal hazards resulting from the combined effects of natural and human factors. The most significant of these hazards include coastal erosion, the exploitation of coastal sand for construction purposes, the increasing threat of marine inundation, the proximity of saline groundwater tables to the land surface, and coastal flooding. In response to these challenges, the Mauritanian government has adopted several strategies aimed at strengthening the capacity of the city of Nouakchott to adapt to the adverse impacts of environmental changes. However, despite their importance, these strategies have not succeeded in reducing the escalation of coastal hazards. This highlights the need to adopt a more comprehensive and effective approach based on an accurate assessment of coastal risks and the development of practical and efficient solutions to mitigate their impacts.
Visual Pollution and Its Impact on the Urban Aesthetic Landscape in Al-Zawiya, Libya: An Applied Analytical Study
This study presents a comprehensive scientific analysis of the manifestations of visual pollution and their impact on the urban aesthetic landscape of the city of Al-Zawiya. The study aims to identify the patterns and forms of visual pollution prevalent in the city and to examine their implications for both aesthetic and functional quality. The findings revealed a complex interaction among various forms of visual pollution, including architectural, service-related, and environmental aspects, as well as random graffiti, torn posters, and light pollution resulting from the lack of regulation. These factors have contributed to the formation of an urban landscape characterized by visual clutter and the loss of architectural identity, owing to the widespread presence of visually incompatible elements that diminish the aesthetic quality of the city. The study concluded that visual pollution is a phenomenon affecting multiple dimensions of the urban environment, involving intertwined environmental, aesthetic, and social aspects. It further demonstrated that the urban aesthetic landscape cannot be separated from the level of urban organization and visual planning. Accordingly, addressing visual pollution in the city of Al-Zawiya requires an integrated understanding that combines geographical analysis with an aesthetic approach, while directing policies toward the adoption of practical planning and awareness-based solutions. The study recommends strengthening and enforcing relevant regulations to mitigate this phenomenon and improve urban quality of life.
Dr. Mustafa Abdulsalam Al-Shaibani Khalfallah
Assessment of the Environmental Dimension in Tourism Planning in Morocco: The City of Fez as a Case Study
environmental considerations are integrated into tourism planning in Morocco through a case study of the city of Fez, one of the country's most prominent tourist destinations, distinguished by its rich cultural, historical, and environmental heritage. The research is based on the hypothesis that tourism planning in Morocco has undergone significant transformations toward adopting a sustainable tourism approach, particularly following the implementation of recent strategic orientations. However, the effective integration of the environmental dimension at the local level continues to face various constraints and challenges. The study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach supported by statistical data to assess the evolution of tourist arrivals in Fez and their implications for the local tourism environment. It also highlights the role of tourism infrastructure as a fundamental pillar for achieving environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the research examines the changing status of environmental considerations within national tourism plans by distinguishing between the period prior to 2010, which was characterized by limited integration of environmental concerns, and the subsequent period, which witnessed growing attention to environmental issues and sustainable development principles. The study concludes that the success of sustainable tourism planning in Fez largely depends on the alignment of national tourism policies with local environmental characteristics, the strengthening of environmental governance, and the development of environmentally friendly tourism infrastructure. Such measures are essential to achieving a balance between the utilization and conservation of tourism resources, thereby supporting sustainable tourism development in the long term.
The Current Status of the Solid Waste Landfill in Al-Saleh Gardens, Taiz Governorate, Yemen, and Its Impact on the Environment and Human Health: A Study in Environmental Geography
The solid waste landfill in the city of Taiz has become a serious problem that has adversely affected both human health and the environment as a consequence of the war in Yemen. This situation led to the selection of a landfill site for the city in a random manner, resulting in severe environmental and humanitarian impacts. The study problem focused on the effects of the solid waste landfill on human health and the environment in Taiz City, where the random selection of the landfill site contributed to a range of environmental and humanitarian disasters. The study aimed to examine the current status of the solid waste landfill and its administrative management, conduct an evaluation of the landfill site, assess its suitability according to established landfill selection criteria, identify the environmental impacts associated with the landfill and its various adverse effects, and explore ways to reduce pollution risks, particularly air, soil, and water resource contamination in the surrounding environment. The study also sought to reach a set of findings, the most important of which was that the landfill site was selected randomly on sloping terrain near residential areas without consideration of its environmental impacts and without any engineering measures to modify and isolate the site from surrounding soils and groundwater. The study presented both urgent and long-term recommendations intended to assist decision-makers and professionals in the solid waste sector. These recommendations included relocating the current landfill to an alternative site located away from residential areas and selecting a location that meets appropriate environmental standards. The study adopted the descriptive, analytical, and environmental approaches, in addition to several other research procedures.
An Attempt to Model Future Environmental Scenarios for the Tafilalt Oasis System (Southeastern Morocco) by 2050
This article seeks to shed light on the environmental situation of the Tafilalt Oasis in order to envision the general features of its future by the year 2050. The article is based on a central issue: the oasis environment of Tafilalt is evolving under the influence of numerous natural and human factors. This evolution follows a particular trajectory that may lead either to improvement or deterioration; therefore, the protection and development of the oasis require an assessment of its future prospects. To address this issue, the study adopted a synthetic approach combining quantitative and qualitative indicators, together with the findings of previous studies and field-observed indicators. The article developed eight theoretical scenarios and four realistic scenarios, from which two scenarios were considered the most likely. The first is the “Degradation Scenario,” under which many oasis settlements are expected to decline and disappear due to decreasing water resources, advancing desertification, Bayoud disease, the failure of development projects, the incompatibility of interventions with the environmental characteristics of the oasis, and population decline. The second is the “Adaptation Scenario,” which anticipates the gradual disappearance of the traditional oasis agricultural system and its replacement by a production system focused mainly on date palms, particularly varieties with high economic returns, such as Medjool and Feggous.
The Role of Geospatial Technologies in Enhancing Sustainable Environmental Planning for Protected Areas: A Case Study of Al-Shaafyin Protected Area, Northwestern Libya
Protected areas are among the most important means of preserving biodiversity and ensuring the sustainability of natural resources. However, the effectiveness of their management depends on the availability of environmental planning based on accurate data and modern spatial analysis. In Libya, many protected areas are still managed using traditional approaches that limit their ability to monitor environmental changes and address forms of environmental degradation. Al-Shaafyin Protected Area, located in northwestern Libya, represents a case facing increasing environmental pressures resulting from climate change and human activities, in addition to a lack of applied studies based on geospatial technologies. Therefore, this study aimed to employ Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques to assess vegetation cover within the protected area during the period 2000–2025 using Landsat imagery and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) through ArcGIS Pro software. The results revealed a noticeable deterioration in vegetation cover, particularly the very dense vegetation class, which disappeared after 2000 as a result of declining NDVI values. Areas of dense and moderate vegetation also decreased, while poor vegetation cover increased substantially, reaching approximately 30.5% of the total protected area by 2025. Although a limited improvement was observed during recent years, the protected area has not regained its original vegetation condition. This highlights the need to implement environmental rehabilitation programs, strengthen protection measures, and reduce human encroachments.
Analysis of Vegetation Cover Dynamics Using the NDVI in Kabkabiya Locality, North Darfur State, Sudan, During the Period 2000–2025
This study aims to analyze the dynamics of vegetation cover in Kabkabiya Locality, North Darfur State, during the period 2000–2025, in light of the climatic changes and increasing human pressures that have affected the sustainability of natural resources in the region. The research addresses the lack of detailed studies examining the spatial and temporal patterns of vegetation cover change and the extent to which these changes are influenced by environmental factors. Accordingly, the study seeks to achieve several objectives, including analyzing vegetation cover changes using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), monitoring temporal and spatial trends of vegetation degradation or improvement, assessing the impacts of climatic and anthropogenic factors, and supporting sustainable environmental planning. The study adopts a quantitative analytical approach based on Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques. Multi-temporal satellite imagery acquired from Landsat 5, Landsat 7, and Landsat 8 was analyzed, and NDVI was calculated to detect and evaluate vegetation cover changes over the study period. ArcGIS software was employed for data processing, map production, and spatial pattern analysis. The results revealed the predominance of sparse vegetation classes and a decline in healthy vegetation cover, indicating an overall trend toward environmental degradation. The study recommends the implementation of sustainable natural resource management strategies, regulation of grazing activities, enhancement of reforestation programs, and the continued use of remote sensing technologies for environmental monitoring. Such measures can support informed decision-making processes and contribute to achieving sustainable development in the study area.
Detecting Climate Change Trends in Summer Maximum Temperatures in Central Libya: A Dynamic Climatic Analysis of Al-Haruj Mountains Based on NASA Power Platform Outputs.
This study aims to analyze trends in changes in the averages of summer maximum temperatures in the Al-Haruj Mountains region in central Libya during the period (1981–2024), based on data from 11 observation points represented by the NASA POWER platform. For comparison purposes, the time series was divided into two periods: (1981–2002) and (2003–2024). The study employed the T-test to measure the statistical significance of differences between the two periods, in addition to thermal threshold analysis using percentiles, with spatial representation of the data through the Kriging method within spatial interpolation tools in the ArcMap GIS environment. The results showed statistically significant differences at the level of (P = 0.031) between the two periods. The analysis of the 90th percentile (43.68°C) also indicated an expansion in the range of higher values compared to the reference period. Spatially, the interpolation results suggest a relative decrease in temperature values over elevated areas, in contrast to an expansion of higher values toward lower areas. The study concludes that there is a general trend toward an increase in summer maximum temperatures in the region, with potential implications for ecosystems and water resources, which necessitates taking these changes into account when developing adaptation strategies.
Characteristics and Features of the Relief Unit of the Western Moroccan Rif: The Upper and Middle Wadi Lao Basin as a Case Study
This article aims to identify the natural characteristics, particularly relief, which constitutes a fundamental entry point for any study in physical geography. In this research, these characteristics are referred to as “slow-changing elements,” as they evolve over hundreds of years and may extend beyond a thousand years. The relief structure includes geology, geomorphology, soils, vegetation cover, and the hydrographic network. All of these elements contribute directly and indirectly to the formation of the relief structure. The middle and upper parts of the Wadi Laou Basin, which constitute the study area, form part of the Western Rif basins and occupy a distinguished position within this geographical region due to their area of approximately 824 km². The importance of the mountainous terrain lies in its role as a natural barrier to various atmospheric disturbances, particularly Atlantic influences carrying rainfall and snowfall. This makes the area wetter on slopes and in lowlands, while snowfall is common on highlands and mountain peaks, especially during the winter season. These precipitations contribute to surface runoff through the main valley and several of its tributaries, including the Telmbot and Makou wadis. Since the basin represents a geographical system composed of both slow-changing and rapidly changing elements, these components influence the relief structure of the drainage basin. This structure, in turn, controls the available water resources, while human activities play an important role in their management through various methods and means. These factors and others are reflected directly and indirectly in human activities and patterns of geographical land use.
Using Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing to Study the Natural Characteristics of the Wadi Amara Basin
This study aimed to demonstrate the importance of employing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing technologies in identifying the natural characteristics of the Wadi Amara Basin through the use of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a spatial resolution of 30 m. Particular emphasis was placed on the basin’s topographic, areal, morphometric, and geomorphological characteristics, as well as drainage density, stream order distribution, and channel networks based on the stream-order classification system proposed by Arthur N. Strahler (1969). The study sought to establish a digital geographic database, produce thematic maps of the basin’s natural features, derive various morphometric parameters, and analyze them using a quantitative analytical approach. The findings revealed that the Wadi Amara Basin covers an area of 34.13 km², with a basin length of 7.5 km and a perimeter of approximately 27.5 km. The basin exhibits a near-circular yet irregular shape. Its terrain extends across three distinct geomorphological zones, with elevations ranging from 2 to 171 m above sea level. Slope gradients vary between 0° and 13.6°, with an average slope of 2.7°, according to the classification of Anthony Young (1972). The drainage network consists of four stream orders of varying lengths and frequencies, comprising 99 channels with a total stream length of 56.22 km. The study further indicates that the basin is currently in the youthful stage of geomorphological development, characterized by a ruggedness value of 9.8 km. Moreover, the basin exhibits highly dissected terrain and a coarse drainage texture, with a value of 3.6 streams/km according to the classification proposed by Kenneth G. Smith (1950). The study concludes with a set of findings and recommendations that may contribute to future research and applications related to the management and sustainable development of natural resources.
Morphometric Analysis of Wadi Amhairith Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
This study aims to identify the morphometric characteristics of the drainage network of one of the most important dry valleys in northern Oujeft Province, namely Wadi Amhairith, using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology. The study focuses on revealing the morphometric characteristics represented by the areal, shape, relief, and drainage network properties in order to establish a geographic database for the basin. A drainage network map of the Wadi Amhairith Basin was produced and classified according to the Strahler stream-ordering method. The basin covers an area of 207.96 km², with a perimeter of 114.86 km and a length of 30.86 km. The analytical results indicate that the basin shape tends more toward a rectangular form than a circular one. The drainage network is characterized by variations in the number and lengths of streams from one order to another due to their formation processes and origins, as well as differences in the basin's topographic characteristics. The total number of streams within the Wadi Amhairith Basin reached 781 channels, with a combined length of 495.87 km.
The Geomorphological Map of the Continental Shelf in the Gulf of Sirte
The continental shelf of the Gulf of Sirte is considered one of the most important continental shelves adjacent to the Libyan coast. It extends gradually from the shoreline toward the continental slope within the Gulf of Sirte. The shelf covers an area of 31,382 km², representing 46.6% of the total area of the Libyan continental shelf. Its geomorphological characteristics are closely related to the tectonic evolution of the Sirte Sedimentary Basin and to fluctuations in the Mediterranean Sea level throughout geological periods. The width of the continental shelf ranges between 1 and 75 km, while its depth varies from 0 to 200 m. The seabed is characterized by a gentle slope ranging from 0° to 6.5°, with local variations resulting from the diversity of submerged geomorphological features. Although there is a general seabed inclination toward the north and northeast, slope directions vary among different sectors of the shelf. Sand shoals constitute the dominant geomorphological feature of the continental shelf, covering 88% of its total area. Bottom elevations occupy 7%, while depressions account for 5% of the total shelf area. Their spatial distribution varies across different shelf sectors, reflecting the combined influence of tectonic processes and marine and continental erosion and depositional factors responsible for their formation. The diversity of seabed features has produced a geomorphological pattern characterized by topographic variability and the absence of a clear, gradual transition in depth, slope, and slope directions across the floor of the continental shelf in the Gulf of Sirte.
(Modified in March 2026) A morphometric, statistical analysis of the morphometric variables of the fourth and fifth order basins in the Tamet basin using geographic information systems.
The aim of this study is to analyze the morphometric variables of the fourth and fifth order basins in the Tamet Valley, using the Geographical Information System (GIS), based on the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), with a distinction accuracy of 30 * 30 meters. Through the hydrological analysis of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), the boundaries of the Tamet Valley basin were determined, the boundaries of its basins of the fourth and fifth orders were also determined, and many morphometric variables were extracted for basins such as the area of ​​the basins, their length, the length of their perimeter and water network, their river order, and the use of mathematical equations applied in this regard in extracting many other morphometric variables. This study also aims to analyze the existing statistical relationships between the morphometric variables of the studied basins using Pearson's Correlation coefficient, and the method of stepwise multiple regression, to reveal the statistical relationships between the morphometric variables of the basins fourth and fifth order in the basin of Tamet Valley. The present study was divided into five chapters. The first chapter was introductory, and the second devoted to the natural characteristics of the basin of Tamet valley, while the third chapter dealt with the analysis of morphometric variables for the fourth and fifth order of the basins in the Tamet Valley, whereas the fourth chapter included an analysis of the existing statistical relationships between morphometric variables for the above-mentioned basins, as for the fifth chapter, it included the results and recommendations. The study has concluded to extract, calculate, and analyze the morphometric characteristics of the studied basins, where it was shown that the values ​​of these variables were affected by the natural characteristics of the basin of the Tamet valley, especially the morphometric variables related to the water network. The study has also discovered through statistical analysis the correlational relationships between morphometric variables that are graded in terms of strength starting from strong, medium, and weak relationships, and in terms of type to positive relationships, and negative (inverse) relationships, as well as determining the mutual effects between morphometric variables by applying the method of progressive multiple regression.
Copyright (c) 2022 Journal of Libya for geographical studies
Spatio-Temporal Variation of Precipitation The Case of the M'dez Watershed (Middle Atlas, Morocco)
The objective this study is to analyze the spatio-temporal variability of precipitation amounts, in order to provide an objective assessment of its impacts on water resources. The analysis of precipitation variability was carried out in the M'dez watershed, which is distinguished by a diverse morphological mosaic. The rainfall parameters analyzed, for the period 1970-2024, include monthly, seasonal and annual average. Meteorological data were obtained from rainfall stations managed by the Sebou Basin Hydraulic Agency. In addition, precipitation anomalies were calculated and the standardized precipitation index (SPI) was calculated. For the study area, there was a high variability in precipitation amounts, both in terms of recorded values and the inconsistency of the years in which they occurred.
Rainfall Analysis in Lattakia (Syria) During the Period 1993–2024
Rainfall is one of the most important and vital climatic elements. This research aimed to analyze the general trend of rainfall at several rain stations in Lattakia Governorate for the period 1993–2024, using the Mann–Kendall nonparametric test to identify temporal variations in rainfall. The results indicated a significant increasing trend in annual rainfall at Bouqa and Wadi Qandeel stations, where the calculated test values exceeded the critical table value (1.96). A significant increasing trend was also observed in January at all stations, except Alhaffah station. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated for the six rainy months, and the years were classified according to their humidity and aridity levels based on index categories. The results showed that the majority of years were normal. Coefficients of variation (CV) were also computed, and a map of CV classes was prepared, with the highest value recorded at Bouqa station (37%). Additionally, an isohyetal map was prepared for the same period, showing that the study area was distributed between rainfall lines of <800 mm and >1150 mm, with approximately 71.2% of the area lying between 900 mm and 1000 mm.
Geopolitical Population Dependency of the Libyan State: A Study in Geopolitics
This study focuses on highlighting the geopolitical population dependency of Libya. Understanding geopolitical dependency is considered a key factor in determining a state's strength in international relations. Although focusing solely on population size as an indicator of state power and behavior is not considered decisive or objective in geopolitical studies, population-related variables—such as gender ratio, levels of awareness and education, and technological literacy—are essential determinants of the population’s contribution to state power. The geopolitical dependency of Libya’s population relative to neighboring countries is a crucial and effective aspect in assessing state strength and its components. This study relied on 2023 population data from the United Nations. Geopolitical dependency was expressed mathematically using the ratio of the total population of Libya’s neighboring states to Libya’s population. The study analyzed Libya’s geopolitical dependency in relation to its population size and compared it with that of its neighboring countries to identify disparities in dependency rates and examine their effects on Libya’s power, effectiveness, and behavior at regional and international levels.